Snow, ice and permafrost landscapes as ‘frozen commons’: examples from northern Mongolia

Abstract
‘Frozen commons’ (FCs) are cryosphere resources and landscapes,
defined by snow, ice, and permafrost, that are experienced, used, protected and managed by groups
of people together. This paper highlights collaboration between herders and scientists aimed at
improving the understanding of FCs in northern Mongolia, a region of rapid cryosphere
transformation. The impact of climate change on Indigenous and pastoralist communities in
Mongolia is profound, leading to the damage or loss of FCs critical to local livelihoods. Therefore,
Indigenous and local knowledge becomes crucial in assessing and predicting the climate-driven
dynamics of FCs. In 2022, 2023, 2024 a team of permafrost scientists, geographers, and economists
conducted interviews in reindeer and cattle herder camps in Khövsgöl Aimag (Province) located in
the northern part of Mongolia. Local livelihoods do not depend only on cattle, which allows us to
examine a variety of animal–environment interactions and impacts on pastoralism. The analysis of
interviews indicates that FCs are a vital resource for the Khövsgöl communities and holds
significant importance in their daily lives. Permafrost plays a key role for herders as it provides
water resources for pastures and local rivers, which is critical during dry summers. Ice and snow
also have many uses, such as a source of water, winter transport and the basis of cultural events. As
winters become shorter and ice conditions become less predictable, the sustainability and
availability of these resources for local people are under threat.